Those who don’t know any better come
into our neighborhood scared. They think we’re dangerous. They think
we will attack them with shiny knives. They are stupid people who are
lost and got here by mistake.
But we aren’t afraid. We know the guy
with the crooked eye is Davey, the Baby’s brother, and the tall one
next to him in the straw brim, that’s Rosa’s Eddie V., and the big
one that looks like a dumb grown man, he’s Fat Boy, though he’s
not fat anymore nor a boy.
All brown all around, we are safe. But
watch us drive into a neighborhood of another color and our knees go
shakity-shake and our car windows get rolled up tight and our eyes
look straight. Yeah. That is how it goes and goes. (Cisneros, 1989, p.
28)
Teachers in the United States are working
in far more heterogeneous classrooms than ever before. Rapid changes in
the nature of the United States school population are bringing to the
classroom more students with limited-English proficiency and more
immigrants with a wide variety of school preparation (Cohen, 1994;
Villegas, l992). Tragically, school failure among linguistically and
culturally diverse students seems to be paralleling this increased
heterogeneity (Goldenberg, l996). For example, Hispanics are far more
likely to drop out of school than are members of any other ethnic group,
with an estimated 40 percent of Hispanic students leaving high school
before the spring of their sophomore years (McKay, 1988). Equally tragic
is the continuation of differential levels of achievement between
European-American and African-American students in the public schools
(Irvine, 1990; Ptak, l988). These trends present a significant challenge
to the next generation of teachers and to those responsible for their
training (Dilworth, 1992; O’Hair & Odell, l993; Zeichner, l993).
If current demographic trends hold, the
student population will become increasingly linguistically and
ethnically diverse, while the teaching population remains predominantly
European American, monolingual, and mostly female (Ducharme &
Ducharme, l995; Gay, 1993). For purposes of this paper, we will use
Kenneth M. Zeichner’s (1993) definitions of the terms diversity
and diverse learners: "differences [between the teachers and
students] related to social class, ethnicity, culture, and
language" (p. 1). African Americans, the second largest ethnic
group among teachers, comprise 7 percent of all public school teachers
in the United States (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES],
l996). Presently only 3 percent of all teachers in the United States are
Hispanic with about 64 Hispanic students for every Hispanic teacher (de
la Rosa, Maw & Yzaguirre, l990; Jiménez, Gersten, & Rivera,
1996).
Concerns exist in the teacher education
literature that the stable demographics of those going into teaching and
the increasing diversity of those whom they will be teaching is a
chronic problem (Haberman, l996; Larkin & Sleeter, l995). Some
suggest that teachers of linguistically and culturally diverse children
should be selected from the same racial, ethnic, or linguistic group as
the children being taught. Proponents contend that teachers who are
"matched" with their students could provide positive role
models, encourage children to perform better, and understand and counsel
children better (Arends, Clemson, & Henkelman, l992; Saracho &
Spodek, l995). Martin Haberman (1996) cautions against simplistic ethnic
or racial matching of teachers to their students. He advocates instead
recruiting teachers who have lived through similar life experiences of
poverty and violence as the urban children they plan to teach. These
views are not universally held.
"Whether teachers’ race and
ethnicity affect student achievement remains an open question"
(Ladson-Billings, l994, p. 26). Investigators have failed to find
empirically valid connections between teacher race-ethnicity and student
achievement (Jiménez, et al., 1996; King, l993; Nieto, l992; Schumann,
1992). As a result, there appears to be widespread agreement that lack
of empirical evidence in this area permits us to focus on holding all
teachers accountable for teaching all students (Irvine, l990, 1992;
King, 1993; Ladson-Billings, l994, l995). Further, when investigators
focus on identifying the behaviors and attitudes of successful teachers
of diverse learners, their findings are consistent with assumptions
about the positive effects of education and teacher training. In fact,
evidence exists that matching teachers and students by race and
ethnicity may have a negative effect on student achievement. Teachers of
the same ethnic group but from a different socioeconomic background may
be less sensitive and more demanding of children, perceiving them as
lacking in ability or motivation (Carter, l971; MacDonald, 1996).
While current efforts to increase
diversity among teachers are laudable and worth continuing, no empirical
evidence exists that linguistically and culturally diverse students
learn better when taught by teachers of similar ethnicity, race, or life
experience (King, 1993; Ladson-Billings, l994; Nieto, l992). For
purposes of argument let me suggest that positing race, ethnicity, and
life experience as necessary and sufficient conditions for teaching
diverse learners is similar to arguing that motherhood is a necessary
and sufficient condition for practicing obstetrics. While I acknowledge
that diverse learners are failing to succeed in American classrooms,
teachers’ knowledge, beliefs, and classroom practices appear more
relevant variables for student success (Garcia, l996; Irvine, l992;
Jiménez, et al., l996; Ladson-Billings, l994). When teachers resolve
"to help students succeed, and...use a variety of strategies to
reach this goal" (Nieto, 1992, p. 242), the unfamiliar becomes
familiar. "All brown all around, we are safe" (Cisneros, l987,
p. 28).
Teacher Effectiveness in a
Multicultural Context
Shifting emphasis away from the race and
ethnicity of the teachers in relationship to their students permits us
to focus on those variables found to correlate with effective teaching
of diverse learners. Effective teachers of racially,
ethno-linguistically diverse students share characteristics and teacher
behaviors with all other effective teachers: they are competent in
subject matter; they communicate clearly when giving directions,
specifying tasks, and providing new information; they pace instruction
appropriately; they provide all students with access to high-status
knowledge; they specify task outcomes and what students must do to
accomplish the tasks; they regularly monitor student progress; they
stress problem solving and critical thinking; they have appropriately
high standards and expectations for their students; they build on
existing student knowledge; they promote active student involvement; and
they provide immediate feedback on students’ success whenever required
(Brophy, 1982; Garcia, l996; Irvine, l992; Schumann, l992).
In addition to these shared
characteristics, the teachers of diverse learners also use the students’
everyday experiences to link new concepts to prior knowledge and culture
(Garcia & McLaughlin, l995; Milk, Mercado, & Sapiens, 1992),
accept and build on students’ ideas and language (Ladson-Billings,
1994, 1995; Palincsar, 1996), and employ interactive methods (Jiménez
et al., 1996; Tikunoff, l983). Interactive methods include: involving
small groups of students on assigned academic tasks with intermittent
assistance by the teacher (Cohen, l994), encouraging student-student
discourse following the teacher’s instructional initiation (Jiménez
et al., 1996), and encouraging students to learn collaboratively, not
necessarily in cooperative groups (Garcia, l996).
Although Jacqueline J. Irvine (l992) and
others (Ducharme & Ducharme, l995; Gersten & Jiménez, 1996;
Ladson-Billings, l995) call for continued research on teaching practices
for diverse students, the existing research on effective teaching
provides a useful framework for instruction. Successful teachers of
diverse learners share common attitudes, knowledge, and classroom
practices (Garcia, l996; Larkin & Sleeter, l995; Milk et al., 1992).
As a group, these successful teachers are bound not by secret knowledge
or exclusive pedagogy but by a clear focus on helping students achieve.
In embracing this focus, they share a commitment to the flexibility and
perseverance it requires. Asa G. Hilliard (1988, p. 201) asserts that
successful teachers of urban, multicultural students do not possess
special pedagogical skills. Rather, urban, multicultural students fail
because they have not been provided "appropriate regular
pedagogy." They fail because they have not been taught.
For this critical lack of focus on
student achievement for diverse learners, some have faulted inadequate
teacher preparation (Larkin & Sleeter, l995; Zeichner, 1993),
lowered teacher expectations (Brophy & Good, l970; Rueda &
Garcia, l996), or other perceived differences between teachers and
students (Haberman, 1992, l996; Weinstein, 1989).
Teacher Expectations and Achievement in a
Multicultural Context
Robert Rueda and Eugene E. Garcia (1996)
investigated teachers’ belief systems and how they affected classroom
practice, particularly on views of linguistic diversity in the
classroom. They investigated the "teachers’ perspectives on three
areas relevant to the education of language minority students (value of
bilingualism, reading-related instructional models and practices, and
reading related assessment)" (p. 316). In classrooms with
chronically low levels of student language use, they found evidence of
teacher beliefs and practices at odds with current views of literacy
instruction and assessment. Teachers with negative perspectives:
...tended to discourage use of primary
language, rarely or never [sic] included bilingual materials in
classroom activities....[teachers held views of] reading
emphasizing...form over function, and the segmentation of learning
into discrete skills or parts...[teachers held views of assessment] as
the evaluation of discrete products of learning, with minimal or no
attention to context or other sociocultural features. (pp. 319-320)
Similar negative results on student
performance have been reported when teachers’ beliefs and classroom
practices result in the differential treatment of students because of
gender differences (AAUW, 1992), stereotypical views of surnames (Demetrulius,
l991), or insular life experiences (Noel, 1995; Tran, Young, & Di
Lella, l994). Correlations between teachers’ expectations and student
achievement are familiar and well documented (Brophy & Good, l970;
Dusek & Josef, l983; Good & Weinstein, 1986). What appears to be
different among contemporary researchers is a heightened understanding
of teachers’ expectations and instructional effectiveness in an
increasingly diverse cultural context.
Teacher expectations for instructional
effectiveness in a multicultural society include: "having a
positive orientation to working in culturally diverse settings"
(Larkin & Sleeter, 1995), "respecting cultural
differences" (Rodriguez & Sjostrom, 1995), and "respecting
diversity" (Wlodkowski & Ginsberg, l995). This desirable
quality in teachers has been variously labeled "culturally
aware" (Arends, et al., 1992), "culturally competent" (Haberman,
l996), "culturally relevant" (Ladson-Billings, l995), or
"culturally responsive" (Villegas, l991). Regardless of the
label, all of the preceding comprise four common elements: (1) rejecting
deficit paradigms that prevail in the literature about the cultural,
linguistic, or racial backgrounds of the students in comparison to other
students (Ladson-Billings, l995); (2) knowledge of the interaction of
the students’ culture and the prevailing school culture (Saracho &
Spodek, l995); (3) incorporating the contributions of the students’
culture into the curriculum (Sleeter, l995); and (4) modifying
instruction to facilitate academic achievement among students from
diverse groups (Ladson-Billings, l994).
Accepting student failure is not an
option for culturally relevant teachers. Instead, they create social
interactions between students to help them meet the criteria for
academic success. Culturally relevant teachers encourage students to be
responsible for the academic success of others. They teach students how
to be successful learners. They reject deficit notions about the
students’ language and family backgrounds. Culturally relevant
teachers use strategies that teach students how to be successful
learners consistent with the view that the teachers hold for them.
More than simply holding high
expectations for their students, successful teachers of diverse learners
actively reject the notion of student failure. They share a belief in
common about the educability of the students. They reject notions that
blame the children for their failure to learn, or attribute student
failure to the economic, racial, or linguistic background of their
families. Instead, successful teachers of diverse students accept
responsibility for teaching their students and for providing them with
the information and skills they needed. They hold their students
accountable for their own learning. These "culturally
competent" teachers represent the desirable qualities in any
teacher for meeting the needs of diverse learners. As models for future
teachers, they present a worthy challenge.
Self-Examination Among Prospective
Teachers
Current understanding of the changing
nature of the student population, the decreasing achievement among
diverse learners, the stable demographics of the teaching force, and the
growing contrast between these factors, hold important implications for
the preparation of future teachers (Ducharme & Ducharme, l995;
Garcia, 1994; Haberman, l994). Gloria Ladson-Billings (1995) suggests a
critical framework for examining teacher preparation programs for
meeting the needs of diverse learners. Does the curriculum teach
prospective teachers about the nature of student-teacher relationships,
the curriculum, schooling, and society? I suggest that the
self-examination called for by Edward R. Ducharme and Mary K. Ducharme
(1995) and others (Haberman, 1996; Larkin & Sleeter, l995; Zeichner,
1993) is a promising vehicle for ensuring among prospective teachers
this moral "plumb line" represented by Ladson-Billings’
(1995) curriculum. Garcia and Barry McLaughlin (1995) refer to it as
"teacher proficiency:"
[It] is based on an understanding of
children, their language, their culture, and their values. Teacher
proficiency is based also on the teachers’ responses to their
students [and an understanding of the effects those responses will
have on the children they teach.] All of these facets of teaching need
to be considered in preparing prospective teachers. (p. 135)
As teacher education continues to strive
for the laudable goals of increased diversity among teachers for America’s
students, it remains equally important for the profession to remain
focused on preparing well all its future teachers. Regardless of their
own life experiences, all teachers must be prepared to help every
student learn. Regardless of ethnicity or language, when beginning
teachers are well prepared, concerns about teaching only as they were
taught are groundless.
Stephanie, one of the students in our
teacher preparation program, included the following essay in one of her
written comprehensive examination questions. I found it so compelling,
that I asked her if I could include it in this article. Join me in
following Stephanie through her journey in defining herself as a
teacher. She is a thoughtful beginning teacher, focused on student
learning, reflecting on teaching and learning, respecting and valuing
diversity, and knowledgeable in practices and strategies for melding
these into one. Her voice, and others like hers, of European-American,
monolingual, female teachers, often remains unheard. I believe hers is
precisely the self-examination we need from teachers of diverse
learners. It is a voice we need to hear.
A Beginning Teacher’s Reflection
on Teaching Diverse Learners
Last semester, I took an inclusion
class. During one class session we had a guest. She was a second grader
who was placed in a local "regular" education classroom. She
came to our class with her grandmother, who was fluent in sign language.
While the grandmother translated, the second grader told of how she had
only one friend in the school and how isolated she felt. The teacher had
not made any effort to include this girl into the classroom, nor had she
made any attempt to learn sign language. Her one friend at the school
was the only person who made any attempt at communication. Her education
was placed in the hands of the special education teacher, with whom she
spent 90 minutes each day. She spent her lunch hour in silence. Most of
my peers in the teacher preparation program were very disturbed by this
story. I kept saying to myself, "What kind of teacher is she?"
Now, I realize that she is the kind of teacher about which the books on
multicultural education are being written. I guess some people just don’t
think.
I use the above example because I feel
that it can best illustrate how I would view a child who has not
mastered the English language. If a child is ignored because of
something that cannot be controlled, what will become of that child?
What has any child done to deserve a lesser education because of
disability, or skin color, or language? Although speaking a language
other than English is not a disability, there is a stigma attached that
can be just as alienating. As teachers, it is our responsibility to
break the communication barriers, not only to ensure true learning, but
to help with the socialization and acceptance of each child. I truly
believe that if my students are not participating members of the class,
it is nobody’s fault but mine. No excuses!
It is important in dealing with
multicultural or non-English speaking students to prioritize the
objectives of the curriculum. If the teacher’s curriculum goals were
to mold his or her students into the stereotypical view of the
"ideal" American child, they would rob the students of the
kind of personal enrichment, engagement, and wonderment that sparks the
work of great minds. In contrast, if teachers wanted to ensure real
learning, they would engage the students in active discussions and
experiences using their own cultural background and language.
My own father had a passion for boats
beginning in early childhood. He spent his summer days sailing through
the canals of Holland dreaming of his future days at sea. By the age of
ten my father had designed his own sailboat. That same year, he and his
family sailed to America to live the "American dream."
Unfortunately, the dream faded and my father struggled to make his way
in this new world. All of what he knew had changed, expect his love for
sailboats.
By the time my father was in high school,
he had built his own sailboat and worked part-time for a local boat
manufacturer. My father’s school days were spent completing mediocre
work, daydreaming about his future, and drawing design after design of
sailboats. His English teacher, Mr. P, to become my English teacher
nearly twenty years later, repeatedly told my father that he was wasting
his time. What Mr. P did not know was that my father may have omitted
reading the classics, but he was enthralled with books about yachts,
yachters, and faraway places. You can imagine my pride when I told Mr. P
that my dad was a huge success designing, building, restoring, and
repairing boats in his own yacht yard. Mr. P said, "Oh."
I am relating all of this about my dad,
not because I think you have any great interest in the history of my
family, but because I think it illustrates the one-sidedness and
intolerance for people who do not fit stereotypical images. So many of
my dad’s early experiences in this country were filled with ridicule
about his language and his lifestyle. Few people saw that underneath his
funny pronunciation of words was a mind filled with purpose, ideas,
drive and brilliance. I’m sure that we can all think of some unique
ways that Mr. P could have incorporated my dad’s interest in boats
into his English curriculum. Fortunately, my dad had a dream and was
self-motivated in full-filling that dream. Unfortunately, few people,
especially teachers, supported him as the bright, capable person he
would prove himself to be.
In my opinion, learning is about
expression—each person expressing his ideas, beliefs, feelings and
hypotheses in order to arrive at a goal or purpose. As a teacher, my
goal is for each of my students to find their own meaning. For
individuals to find their own meaning they must pull from their own
background and experiences. Of course, I could stand at the front of the
room and try to explain concepts based on my own understanding, but how
would that be relevant to my students. They have not seen what I have
seen, they have not heard what I have heard, they have not lived through
what I have lived. What makes me think that they will understand the way
I do? One thing I know deep inside is that if I have high expectations
for each of my students and I give them the chance and the tools for
success, they will learn. They will find their own meaning.
I recently saw a T-shirt that said,
"It’s about character—not color." The T-shirt, of course,
was referring to racial differences, but I think it said a lot about any
differences. Teachers have a responsibility to look beyond the obvious
and superficial and find the potential in each child.
Implications for Teacher Educators
Teacher educators have a concomitant
responsibility to look beyond the obvious and superficial and find the
potential in every prospective teacher. Regardless of prospective
teachers’ race, ethnicity, or life experiences, their teacher
preparation curricula should include: (1) an understanding of the nature
of student-teacher relationships, the curriculum, schooling, and
society; (2) active self-examination; (3) teaching strategies that model
active, meaningful, and ethno-linguistically appropriate student
involvement; and (4) practices that communicate high expectations for
all learners, actively rejecting any notions of student failure. In
Stephanie’s words, "No excuses!"
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